Confusion and Anxiety: Lincoln and the Days Before the Civil War
As Abraham Lincoln prepared for office in 1861, the United States
teetered on the edge of chaos. Sentiments regarding slavery were sharp
and divided and not always aligned with geography. Tensions and anxiety
grew like a burning fire, and the conversation moved from slavery to
states’ rights.
The ‘antagonists’, primarily the pro-slavery advocates, spun the
evolved new argument to paint a picture that secession was a 'good
thing,' and even if it wasn't, slavery was supported by the Constitution
and by God. On the other hand, the 'protagonists', the staunch
abolitionists, believed that slavery was a horrible evil and needed to
be destroyed. They also thought that the Union needed to be preserved
and by all means. These two opposing groups and their beliefs were at
the heart of the tensions leading up to the Civil War.
In the quiet of the nation's capital, a buzz was also undermining the
rise of Abraham Lincoln. The capital itself was home to over 7000
enslaved people. The city encompassed a strong following of Confederate
sympathizers—and the tensions of the election laid bare the raw and
emotional feelings of many. In some respects, the city was hostile to
the enormous changes underway.
The Swirl of Various Personalities That Generated Conflict
Mary Chestnut
Individuals like Mary Chestnut, a Southern diarist, demonstrated
remarkable courage in her critical views on slavery. Despite being part
of the Southern elite, she described slavery as a 'monstrous system' and
condemned its inherent injustices. Her outspokenness, especially on the
sexual exploitation of enslaved women, was a beacon of hope amid
societal hypocrisy, inspiring others to speak out against the prevailing
norms.
Reverend Thornton Stringfellow
Some Southerner pastors, however, preached weekly to their
congregations that slavery was a "good and right thing" and that it was
"ordained by God." Reverend Thornton Stringfellow of Virginia said to
his congregations, "It was the law of God that established slavery."
Edmund Ruffin
Edmund Ruffin was in complete agreement with Stringfellow's opinion.
A wealthy planter, agricultural author, and state’s rights activist,
Ruffin found himself somewhat of a hero in South Carolina because of his
pro-slavery writings. Before the 1860 election, he had argued for years
for the South to secede from the Union. Known for his long, white hair,
which added to his striking and somewhat eccentric appearance, it
became a visual signature of his fiery personality and radical views.
Ruffin was disappointed that his home state of Virginia was the last to
leave the Union.
William Lloyd Garrison
For years, abolitionist propaganda flowed from the North and
strengthened the voices against slavery while inciting Southern hatred.
Some Virginians felt that slave propaganda ignited the deadly four-day
insurrection in 1831, led by Nat Turner, an enslaved person. Turner's
group of both free and enslaved people murdered 55 white men, women, and
children.
Many Southerners blamed William Lloyd Garrison and other Yankee
journalists for the rise of abolitionism. His newspaper, The Liberator,
was one of many influential abolitionist papers circulated in the South.
Garrison was a modest and unassuming man. With his clean-shaven face
and close-cropped hair, he stood out in an age of beards. However, his
demeanor was anything but ordinary—his fiery speeches and unwavering
commitment to abolition made him a towering figure in the fight against
slavery.
Sojourner Truth and Frederick Douglass
There were others like Sojourner Truth and Frederick Douglass. They
were both formerly enslaved people and now black activists on a mission
to expose the horrors of slavery. Their words and actions, born out of
their own experiences, were powerful examples of the wrongness of the
horrible institution. It also expressed how oppressive the evil
institution was and how change would only occur if extreme measures
occurred.
"I have borne thirteen children and seen most all sold off to
slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus
heard me!" Her words were not just about slavery but also about justice,
equality, and the strength of women. She believed in the power of truth
and often said, "Truth is powerful, and it prevails."
*Frederick Douglass’ words were not just a call to action, but a
declaration of urgency. He understood the gravity of the situation,
saying, 'It is not light that we need, but fire; it is not the gentle
shower, but thunder. We need the storm, the whirlwind, and the
earthquake.' His words, filled with determination, stirred the emotions
of Americans and underscored the need for immediate change, making the
audience feel the pressing need for reform.
Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln had campaigned on maintaining slavery in the current slave
states but not allowing further development elsewhere. The 1860
election, a pivotal moment in American history, triggered the start of
several southern states leaving the Union. This election, which saw
Lincoln's victory, was a major catalyst for the secession of southern
states. In December 1860, South Carolina became the first state to
secede, marking a significant turning point in the lead-up to the Civil
War.
Lincoln, however, made clear his thinking about secession in his Inaugural address in March 1861, saying:
"We cannot separate; the Union … will constitutionally defend and maintain itself."
The period leading up to the Civil War was a time of profound
confusion and anxiety. During this moment, individuals—each with unique
motivations and personalities—played pivotal roles in shaping the
nation's destiny. The chorus of opinions, ranging from fervent
pro-slavery advocates to staunch abolitionists, became louder, and the
deepening divide in the country was one of darkness and peril.
Pre-War Violence - In Congress
Many politicians were hesitant to speak out against slavery, fearing a
backlash from their constituents or even bodily harm. In 1856, after
delivering a fiery anti-slavery speech, Senator Charles Sumner of
Massachusetts was brutally attacked in the Senate chamber by
Representative Preston Brooks of South Carolina. Brooks used a cane to
beat Sumner, leaving him severely injured. This incident shocked the
nation and highlighted the deep divisions over slavery.
The Fort Sumter Crisis: Duty and Doubt
As South Carolina announced its exit from the Union, Major Robert
Anderson found himself in the eye of the storm. A loyal yet conflicted
Union officer, Anderson commanded Fort Sumter, Charleston, South
Carolina. His decisions and actions during the Fort Sumter Crisis would
profoundly impact the course of the Civil War, carrying with them a
heavy emotional burden.
He was deeply committed to his duty as a Union soldier, and Anderson
wrestled with feelings of isolation and uncertainty. Washington gave him
few specific orders, leaving him to navigate the delicate balance
between defense and provocation. His calm demeanor belied the inner
turmoil of a man tasked with holding the line in a rapidly unraveling
nation.
Leadership Challenges: A Nation Adrift
President James Buchanan's indecision during the secession crisis
left a legacy of confusion. Known for his reserved manner, Buchanan
avoided taking any decisive action. The outgoing president's reluctance
to address the growing threat of secession reflected his desire to
maintain peace but ultimately left the Union vulnerable. This created a
void of leadership that Abraham Lincoln would inherit.
Anxious Trip to Washington
Abraham Lincoln was a thoughtful and pragmatic leader who approached
the presidency with resolve and trepidation. Known for his wit and
self-deprecating humor, he used his intellect to navigate the political
minefield, even as doubts about his capabilities loomed large. His
journey to Washington was marked by genuine fear.
With his election, there were many Southerners who made it known they
would rather kill Lincoln than suffer under his leadership. To begin
his presidency, he traveled by train to the nation's capital without his
family. He cautiously changed trains and traveled in secrecy, trying
to avoid any violence along the way. During the trip, Lincoln became
aware of an assassination conspiracy against him and disguised his
appearance. The trip took several days, with Lincoln stopping at small
towns for the night. This trip embodied the anxiety of a nation clearly
on the brink.
Cabinet Challenges
Lincoln's Cabinet included strong personalities and political rivals
who seriously doubted his abilities. Many publicly and privately
expressed that Lincoln was woefully unprepared to tackle the nation's
challenges.
William Seward, Lincoln's Secretary of State, initially believed he
could steer Lincoln's presidency, even drafting a controversial memo
suggesting he take control of the administration's policies early on.
Lincoln ignored Seward's efforts and firmly yet diplomatically asserted
his leadership.
The Secession of South Carolina - Beginning of the Confederacy
South Carolina's secession, led by fiery and resolute politicians
like James Hammond, set the stage for a domino effect. Hammond, known
for his controversial views and sharp tongue, spoke confidently about
the South's power, coining the phrase "King Cotton" as a rallying cry
for Southern independence. His brazen attitude contrasted sharply with
Major Anderson's quieter and more contemplative demeanor.
On the ground, the fierce Southern secessionist Edmund Ruffin
channeled his unyielding passion into action. Ruffin, deeply invested in
the Confederacy's cause, reportedly fired one of the first shots at
Fort Sumter—a symbolic act that epitomized his fervor. His zeal was
matched only by his uncompromising belief in his side's righteousness.
William Lloyd Garrison reacted sharply to South Carolina's secession
from the Union. While many opponents of slavery viewed the act as
unconstitutional, Garrison and other staunch abolitionists welcomed it.
They saw the secession as an opportunity to highlight the moral and
political divide over slavery.
Mary Todd Lincoln
A cast of characters brought support and challenge within Lincoln's
inner circle. Mary Todd Lincoln, his wife, was a profoundly complex
figure. Accused of being a Confederate sympathizer, Mary Todd Lincoln
had Southern roots and family connections; her outspoken nature and
emotional struggles added layers of tension to their marriage. Mary had a
reputation for being opinionated and sharp-tongued, which made her
unpopular among the capital's social circles.
Her feuds with staff and political wives further isolated her. The
celebrated London Times correspondent William Russell was particularly
unflattering towards Mrs. Lincoln. He found her to be "plain" and
"unpleasant."
While deeply devoted to her, Lincoln feared her strong opinions might
lead to public embarrassment. Despite their challenges, Mary's
unwavering belief in her husband's potential was a source of strength.
Chaos and Confusion at Fort Sumter - The War Begins
By April 1861, tensions between the Union and South Carolina's
Confederacy reached a boiling point. Confederate forces surrounded the
fort with heavy cannon and offensive weapons. Major Anderson kept his
small army busy maintaining the fort and preparing for an assault
without explicit orders from Washington.
The situation was fraught with uncertainty. President Abraham Lincoln
faced a dilemma: resupply the fort, risk war, or withdraw and appear
weak. Ultimately, Lincoln decided to send supplies, but before they
could arrive, Confederate forces opened fire on April 12, 1861. The
bombardment lasted 34 hours, leading to the Union's surrender of the
fort.
This event symbolized the deep divisions within the nation and set
the stage for the bloody conflict that would follow. The confusion and
chaos were emblematic of the more considerable turmoil engulfing the
United States.
The Flag and Its Legacy
When Major Anderson, surrendered Fort Sumter in April 1861, he carried the fort's flag—a symbol of Union’s resilience.
Four years later, the same flag was raised to mark the Union's
victory. It was a fitting tribute that Brigadier General Robert
Sullivan, a man of quiet dignity, was assigned to preside over the
ceremony.
The flag-raising at Fort Sumter on April 14, 1865, symbolized the
Union's triumph after years of bitter conflict. Sullivan had envisioned a
solemn religious service. Still, the occasion became a grand
celebration, reflecting the contrasting emotions of triumph and
reflection.
That evening, Robert Sullivan raised a toast to Abraham Lincoln.
Sadly, at approximately the exact moment as the toast, President Lincoln
was gravely wounded by an assassin's bullet at Ford's Theatre—a tragic
irony marking the end of the Civil War and the beginning of national
mourning.
This juxtaposition of victory and loss is a stark reminder of the
horrendous sacrifices made during the war. Nearly seven hundred thousand
Americans had been killed during the 4-year war. It's a reminder of the
lives lost, the families torn apart, and the communities devastated.
It's a reminder of the profound impact of war on a nation. It's also a
reminder of Lincoln's profound influence on preserving the Union, a
legacy that should be remembered and respected.
Conclusion
The days leading up to the Civil War were as much about individuals
as they were about ideologies, from Anderson's quiet resolve at Fort
Sumter to the fiery rhetoric of Southern secessionists like Edmund
Ruffin. The elite Southerners faced financial ruin as well as the end of
a way of life. Ruffin, rather than accept defeat and be under "Yankee
rule," ended his own life on his farm in Virginia.
Mary Chestnut and General Chestnut returned to their South Carolina
plantation, finding it burned. In frustration, she wrote, "Did we lose
by imbecility or because one man could not fight ten for more than four
years?"
For many, their actions, choices, and struggles reveal the human side
of a nation on the precipice of war—a poignant reminder of the
confusion and anxiety that defined this tumultuous period. It is a
reminder that war is not just about nations but people.
